Organizing Immigrant Workers in the Los Angeles Apparel Industry

The apparel industry in the United States is declining. Every month new reports arc put out enumerating the loss of jobs. Meanwhile, parallel numbers report the monthly rise of imports. However, even though apparel jobs arc moving offahorc, U.S.ba..:;cd manufacturers and retailers still play a critical role in the production of apparel for the U.S. market. They have become multinational corporations. They now arrange for the production of their clothing in other countries, but they still remain in charge of ordering and markcting .l

labor intensive industry.Governments promise U.S. apparel manufacturers and retailers a controlled, trouble-free workforce for a fraction of U.S. wages.Of course, not all U.S. companies choose to move offahorc, but the trend is for more of them to shift at least some of their production out of the country.Of the $178 billion spent on apparel in the United States in 1995, over half, or $91 billion, was spent on imports, a figure that keeps rising each year.I The North American Free Trade Agreement has channeled some of this movement in the direction of Mexico.NAFTA's purposes, in part, were to enable U.S. apparel manufacturers and retailers to rely less on A-.ia and to develop their "own" low wage labor force within the Western Hemisphere.As a consequence, apparel imports from Mexico have soared, overtaking the major A-.ian exporters to the U.S., and promising to continue rapid growth.

Los Angeles: The Great Exception
In contrast to the rest of the United States, apparel employment has been growing in Los Angeles.Between 1993 and 1997 the LA industry added an estimated 26,000 new jobs.3.
The LA industry is now the largest apparel employer in the United States.True, New York still remains the chief fashion center of the nation, but jobs have shifted away from that city.Moreover, apparel is the largest manufacturing industry in Los Angeles, having surpassed the aerospace industry in the face of post-Cold War military cutbacks.Although the city is not as widely known for its apparel industry, that industry is just as large an employer as the movie industry, with an estimat ed 150,000 workers .Los Angeles is mainl y a center for the production of moderatel y priced, fashionable sportswear for women, especially young women or ''.juniors."LA's garment-.tend to be geared towards the spring and summer seasons.They arc gaily colored, imaginativ e, reflecting the city's image of sunshine, beaches and infonnality.Some of the maj or apparel manufactur ers arc Guess?Inc, Bugle Boy, Rampa ge, Carole Little, Chorus Linc, andBCBG.
Not all LA apparel manufactur ers do their production in Los Angeles.Some of them have almost all of their clothing produced offahorc, while others outsource part of their production.How ever, some non-LA manufacturers have their production don e in Los Angeles.One example is Designer Holdin gs, a New York based license e for Calvin Klein Jcanswcar, which uses LA contractors to sew many of its denim products.
Even if they produce their garments in Los Angeles, few manufacturers (or retailers) do their own production in-house.They make use of contractors, often many of th em.There arc literally thousands of garment contractors in Los Angeles, spread out across the basin.Most contractors arc small businesses, employin g an average of 35 workers, but a few have over 100 workers .These firms arc typica lly a-.scmbly plants where workers sit at sewing machines and stitch together the cut materials that make up garm ents .

The Advantages to Manufacturers in the Contracting System
The contracting system is touted by manufacturers for the flexibility it provides.Apparel manufacturing is unstable, since it is affected both by seasons and by shifts in fashion.The contracting system enables manufacturers to have work done only when th ey need it, thereby avoiding the maintenance of a stable labor force that they do not need year round.The contractors are able to absorb the changing demands of the industry, shifting th eir work among different manufacturers in an effort to keep their factories running at full capacity.
But there is another side to the contracting system.It also serves a.., a labor-control system.The contractors typically do the sewing or a ... scmbly.Some contractors specialize in cutting, laundering, or finishing, but the majority are a ... sembly plants.By contracting out, the manufacturers externalize the labor.The manufacturer never loses title to the goods that the contractors sew.They do not sell the cut goods to the contractors.Inst ead, the contractors ba..,ically supply only the labor.They arc essentially labor contractors.
A.., we have said, most contractors arc small businesses.They arc typically run by immigrant entrepreneurs who usually do not have much capital.Manufacturers arc able to pit contractors against one another a.., they underbid each other to get the work.Contractors arc typically offered a price for the work on a "take it or leave it" ba..,is, because the manufacturer can always find another contractor who would be willing to do the work for less.
There is a substantial underground economy among apparel contractors.No one knows exactly how many shops operate without licenses or paying taxes, but estimates arc that a.., many a.., one-third of all apparel factories fall into this sector.Some of the und erground operations arc small and operate out of people's garages, but some are substantial in size.
The small size and dispersion of apparel contracting firms in Los Angeles also m eans that they can fairly ca.., ily evade state inspection.The number of state inspectors docs not remotely come close to the number that would be needed to police the industry systematically.Moreover, even when firms arc caught with violations, they can go out of business and open again in a new location, under a new name.

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The contracting system enables labor costs to be kept at rock bottom level..,.Meanwhile, manufacturers can deny any responsibility for conditions in their contractors' factori es because they arc "independent" businesses.They can place all the blame for conditi ons in these shops on the contractors, turning a blind eye to the fact that they set the low price s within which the contract ors must operate .The fictional a..,pcct of thi s claim is evident in the fact that manufactur ers often send quality control people to the contractors on a daily ba.., is, and keep a tight control over every a..,pec t of product ion except labor standards.
Another way that contracting serves a~ a labor control system is by inhibiting unionization.The work of a particular manufacturer is spread out over a number of factories.The workers in each of the factories do not even know of each other's existence.Indeed, since manufacturers arc very secretive about the identity of their contractors, even the contractors may not know whom else works for "their" manufacturers.The dilemma for workers is that, given the low margins in the contracting shops, even if they should win a union struggle, it would be very difficult to get the contractor to pay higher wages.Moreover, the very act of trying to organize a factory is likely to lead the manufacturer to shift production away from that factory, and the workers would be left without jobs.
Workers arc more likely to be successful if all the workers employed by contractors who work for the same manufacturer arc able to find common cause.In other words, workers need to organize the entire production system of a single manufacturer simultaneously if they arc to have any chance of success.Only then can they demand that the manufacturer face the demands for higher wages and benefits, since it is the manufacturer who profits most from their labor, and who ha~ accumulated the surplus from which incrca~cs could be drawn.But the dispersion of the workforce into multiple, small factories makes coordination extremely difficult.It is in this sense that the contracting system is a wcllhoncd, anti-union device.

The Workforce
Garment workers in Los Angeles arc uniformly immigrants.The majority arc Latino, from Mexico and Central America, especially El Salvador and Guatemala.About ten percent arc Asian, mainly from China and Southca~t Asia, including Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand.The largest group is Mexican.A large, unknown, number of garment workers arc undocumented, without papers that legitimize their right to work in the United States.Most do not speak any English, and many have limited education in their homelands.The garment industry, along with domestic service, and to a lesser extent, the hotel and restaurant business, is a major employer of undocumented immigrants.Indeed, there is probably some preference for these workers because of their political vulnerability.
The majority of garment workers in Los Angeles arc women.The 1990 census estimated that about 70 percent were women.Unlike the workers in the maquiladora~ of Mexico and the Caribbean, LA's female labor force is not composed of teenagers.They arc mainly young women in their 20s and 30s.Many arc mothers, and some arc the sole supporters of their families.The number of men working at sewing machines ha~ grown in the la~t decade, probably a~ a consequence of the growing anti-immigrant sentiment~ and policies in California.As the crackdown on illegal immigration is stepped up, more immigrants arc driven to take whatever jobs they can find.The garment industry remains a willing employer of the undocumented.
Undocumented immigrants arc obviously especially vulnerable to exploitation, and their vulnerability is exacerbated in times of public, anti-immigrant fervor.Not only do they not have any of the usual legal recourse of citizens and permanent residents, but they are threatened with the possibility of exposure and deportation.Employers can use the fear this engenders to full effect.W orkcrs can be intimidated into silence under a burden of oppression.Some garment workers are legal immigrants, but they rarely have the time to learn English and attain citizenship, so they remain without a vote or voice.1n addition, the fact that most garment workers are women add'l to the likelihood that they will face domination of various types by their employers.

Conditions in the Shops
There is some variation in the conditions in the garment contracting shops of Los Angeles, but overall conditions are remarkably similar.Garment workers typically work on piece rate, i.e., they arc paid for each procedure they complete.This is similar to the pay system in agriculture, where farm workers arc paid for the number ofpound'l they pick.
Both California and federal law require that workers be paid minimum wage and overtime even if they arc paid piece rate.The employer necd'l to keep time cards and ensure that the hourly minimum wage is covered, and that, when employees work over eight hours a day (the law in California until recently), or 40 hours a week (federal and state law), they must be paid 111; times their ba'le wage.These regulations are routinely violated.Contractors want to pay only the flat piece rate, and they devise every trick in the book to hide the fact that that is what they are doing.They falsify the rccord'l, they maintain double book'l, they use double time card'l, they cook up schemes so that overtime is calculated after the fact, they clock workers out after eight hours and pay them in ca'lh thereafter, they have them work off the book'l on Saturdays, they encourag e off-thc-book'l homework, they get workers to kick back excess earnings in cash, and so forth.Thus minimum wage and overtime violations are extremely common in this industry.Even when workers arc paid the legal minimum, garment workers remain among the lowest-paid workers in Los Angeles, and make up an important segment of th e working poor.
A ba'lclinc survey of 69 California garment firms wa'l conducted in 1994 by California and federal labor enforcement agencies.They found that 61 percent of Southern California firms failed to pay minimum wage and 78 percent failed to pay overtime.1n addition, 74 percent had record-keeping violations and 41 percent paid workers in ca'lh.1.While subsequent surveys have found some diminution in some of these statistics, other arca'l show an incrca'le in violations.The fact is violations of the law remain at an excessively high level.

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The piecework system encourages self-exploitation, as workers work very fast and for as many hours as possible in order to make a living.It creates the illusion that the worker controls her earnings by her own skill-level, and makes it difficult for workers to feel a sense of common exploitation.The illusion of control is occasionally shattered, when workers arc shifted to new tasks and find that their earning levels collapse, or when the contractor lowers the piece rate in a cost-cutting move.These kinds of actions arc likely to trigger wildcat reactions on the part of workers, who feel that the rug has been pulled out from under them.
Homework is a fairly common feature in the LA apparel industry.Some workers are full time homeworkers, while others take work home after hours.Whil e homework may sometimes be attractive to women workers, who combine work with childcare, it is typically associated with the lowest pay when all the worker's costs are added in.2 None of the usual protections of minimum wage and overtime pay can be ensured because of the underground character of the work.
Garment workers rarely receive any fringe benefits whatsoever.They are typically not given paid vacations or paid sick leave.Medical insurance is virtually non-exist ent for the worker herself, and out of the question for her family.In other words, the system is geared towards paying workers their piece rate, and that is that.Not e that , by not paying for the health care coverage of the workers in his contracting shops, the manufacturer, who can own a very profitable enterprise and be very rich himself, forces his workers to rely on the impoverished LA County health care system.Onc e again, the contracting system, by creating a false distance between the employer and his workers, enables the manufacturer to avoid taking responsibility, and forces the taxpayer s to pick up what should rightfully be a tab that he pays.
Apart from poverty level wages, garment workers arc also subject to other forms of abuse.Since garment contracting shops are small businesses, they lack bur caucratic rules and arc subject to the direct authority of the owner and supervisors.This authority can easily be conducted in an arbitrary fashion, with favoritism and discrimination.Workers who are not favored can be given older, less efficient machin es , or can be denied work.They can also be subjected to personal abuse of all kinds, from being yelled at to facing sexual harassment.Workers will sometimes say that they can bear the harsh burden of low wages, but cannot endure being treated in an insulting and dem eaning manner.
In addition, many garment factories in Los Angeles have serious health and safety violations.In a recent sweep it was found that 96 percent of factories violated the law , and 72 percent had such serious violations tha t they could result in injury or death.Q The violations includ ed such things as blocked fire exits, exposed wires, and machines without safety guards.Many of the garment shops of LA could turn into death traps in the event of a fire.

The Return of Sweatshops
We arc in an era in which many government officials and others speak of a return of th e sweatshop.In the U.S., garment industry sweatshops were more or less eradicated by a combination of the development of powerful garment worker unions , and the New Deal, which provided support for basic labor standards.Since the 1970s, and especially during the 1980s and 1990s, we have seen the erosion of wages and working conditions in the U.S. apparel industry.In 1950, average weekl y wages of U.S. garment workers were 76.5 percent of the average manufacturing wage.By 1990, this figure had dropped to 54.l pcrccnt.1 Despite protests by industry leaders that only a few rotten apples run sweatshops, the reality is that problems arc rampant throughout the LA industry .
Why arc we seeing the return of sweatshops now?There arc many reasons.Globalization certainly plays a critical role.Since apparel manufacturers and retailers can move, or threaten to move offshore, they force local workers to face the grim choice of accepting the jobs as they arc, or losing the jobs altogether.Manufacturers and retailers can argue that they can get the work done offshore for a fraction of the price that they can get it done in Los Angeles .So any improvement in wages and working conditions is interpreted as a threat to the continuation of the industry in LA It is important to note that ther e arc reasons why the industry has continu ed to grow in Los Angeles and has not all flown to cheaper labor sites.To a large extent , the LA industry specializes in fashionable clothing, where speed of production is more important than price.Moreover, the lot sizes arc small, making them unsuitable for shippin g offshore to large assembly plants that specialize in mass production.The small contracting factories of LA arc uniquely suited to this kind of specialized production.Apart from that, there arc agglomeration effects, where a manu fact urer can meet all his production needs right in the vicinity.
While labor costs arc clearly a factor in the decision to move offshor e, the fact is that labor is only a relativel y small percentage of the cost of apparel production.Especially in the realm of fashion and established brand names, what is being sold is more an "image" than the garment per sc.Firms of this type spend million s of dollars on advertising, including celebrity endorsements , in order to create demand for a product that was relatively cheap to produce.Los Angeles is a city that speciali zes in image -cr eation, and so docs its apparel indus try.Rising labor costs is thus only one consideration in the decision to shift productio n .This is not to say that the industry might not pack up and move to Mexico should the price of labor ris e substant ially.It may.Mexico is nearby, and Mexican firms may develop the capaci ty to engage in LA -style contractin g.For the moment, they do not have this capacity so, despite a lot of bluster about leaving whe never a demand is placed on the indus try to clean up its act, apparel production still continues to grow in Los Ang eles.
Globalization itself can be seen as part of a larger set of trends that have led to the return of sweatshops.These include the decline of the Welfare State and the attack on the labor movement.In general, we have been witnessing an effort on the part of big busin ess to enhance its power, and to undermine the power oflabor.Workers in the United States (and in other industrial nations) have gradually been stripped of the protections they were able to win in the post-World War II era.Various public programs and social assistance have eroded, unemployment has risen, and real wages have fallen.Meanwhile, business owners, along with the managers and professional.:;whom they employ, have grown richer and richer.The gap between rich and poor has grown wider.Los Angeles shows these trends even more starkly than the U.S. as a whole.
The first blast of attack against the labor movement occurred when Ronald Reagan became president and broke the Air Traffic Controllers strike.Since then, unions have faced the erosion of the legal environment that had been developed to protect workers' rights to organize during the New Deal.Unfair labor practices on the part of employers have become more flagrant a.:; they have learned that the cost of union busting is minor compared to the cost of having to negotiate a union contract.Another a.:;pcct in the growth of garment sweatshops ha.:; been the consolidation of retailing.Since the mid-l980s there ha.:; been a major merger movement in retailing, where giant retailers have bought each other out, a.:;suming huge debt in the proc ess.Some retailers have gone bankrupt.Others have become billion dollar giants who can exercise tremendous power over the industry.The United States ha.:; far too many stores per consumer, resulting in vicious competition.The retailers now have the power to pressure manufacturers to cut cost.:;,change styles more rapidly, and maintain more invcntory ..B_ Many retailers themselves now have their own private ( or store) label, where they employ their own contractors directly, bypa.:;sing the manufactur ers altog ether.Th ey undercut the major brands, putting price pressure on them.All of this puts pressur e down the line of the garment food chain, and the people most impact ed by it arc the workers, both in the U.S. and elsewhere.
Note that, although firms claim they must cut costs to remain competitive, the costcutting knife is rarely applied to the owners, managers and professional.:; in the industry.Executive salaries, advertising costs, profits, and similar rewards that go to the non-labor part of apparel production arc allowed to soar with no outcry that these costs must be kept in check.The largest apparel manufacturers in Los Angeles arc multi-millionair es.For example, six of the 100 highest paid executives in Los Angeles arc in the apparel industry, and five of them work for one company: Guess?Inc.20 Maurice Marciano, CEO of Guess, received $3.4 million in salary and bonus in 1996.It is estimated that the three Marciano brothers, who own most of Guess, personally took home close to half a billion dollars over the la.:; t four years, including salaries, bonuses, distributions to stockholders, and the results of an Initial Public Offering .

Ethnicity
In Los Angeles, the apparel industry is structured along ethnic lines.The manufactur ers arc, for the most part, European in origins, though some arc Middle Ea-;tcrn and A-;ian.Jews play an important role at this level and, while some arc immigrants, man y arc U.S.born.The contractors, in contra-;t, arc almost all immigrants, a-; we have stated.They arc from all over the world, but the plurality is A-;ian.Although Koreans arc not num ericall y the most important, they run some of the largest shops and arc very visible in the garment district.
The workers, a-; we have seen, arc predominantly Latino immigrants.While there arc some Latino contractors, the predominant pattern in the industry is for an Asian contractor to hire Latino workers.There arc ca-;cs where contractor and workers arc of the same ethnicity, and where there arc paternalistic linkages between emplo yer and employees.But this is the exception rather than the rule in Los Angeles.In LA, the relationship between contractor and worker tends to be strictl y busines s -like.Exploitation is not softened by familial bonds or the bonds of helping someon e from one's homeland.This pattern of ethnic differentiation between contractors and workers mak es L os Angeles different from other U.S. cities, and maybe other garm ent centers in Europe, too.In these places, although garment contractors and workers arc also immi grant s, they often come from the same country and share certain bonds of obligation.South Asians in Britain employ South Asians.Chinese in New York and San Francisco employ Chinese.And so forth.Obviously, some of this occurs in LA a-; well.Nor do cs it prevent exploitation.The infamous Thai "slave shop" of El Monte, uncovered in August 1995, involved Thai contractors employing Thai women work ers.
The pattern found in Los Angeles is incrca-;ingly found in Mexico and the Caribbean, where Asian entr epreneurs from Korea and Taiwan arc coming to countri es like Guatemala and the Dominican Republic and hiring local Latino and indigenous workers.These firms serve a-; contractors for U.S. manufacturers and retailers.This pattern may also be spreading to other U.S. cities, such a-; New York.
The phenomenon of ethnic difference between the three layers of th e industry : manufactur ers a-; whit e, contrac tors a-; Asian, and workers a-; Latino, creates an import ant dynamic that spills over into the general race relations of the cit y.Consid erabl e tension is developing between the Asian and Latino communities, since they meet at the front lines of an exploitativ e system.Meanwhile, the real economic pow ers, the manufa ctur ers, retailers, real estate owners, bankers, etc ., who arc mainl y nati ve -born whit es, do not have to deal with the antagonisms that arise in the workplace, even though they arc primarily responsible for them.They can push the blame onto the immigrant entrep reneurs, making them out to be sleazy business operators who mistr eat their workers, unlike the good old, decent, American businessman whom would ne ver dream of running a sweatshop.Thus is racism fueled, and used to maintain current relations of power andprivilegc.

Efforts to Eliminate Sweatshops
As the sweatshop scourge has grown, more government attention has be en devoted to trying to eliminate it.Both the state of California and the federal government have stepped up enforcement efforts.The dilemma is that catching a contractor often results in that particular firm going out of business, only to open up again in a new location under a different name.Since the manufacturers (and retailers) control the prices that set the conditions under which garment factories operate, the challenge has been to find a method to hold them responsible for what goes on in "their" factories.
The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) has been especially innovativ e in trying to untangle this knot .They have used the principle of "hot goods" to force manufacturers to pay attention to the conditions under which their clothes arc produced.Hot goods refers to the idea that goods made under illegal conditions cannot be shipped across state borders.In the highly time-sensitive fashion industry, invokin g this provision made it imperative for manufacturers to make sure that their contractors could not be found engaging in illegal practices.The DOL was able to get a number of major manufacturers to sign agreements whereby they would undertake the monitorin g of their contractors.These "compliance agreements II have forced the industry to develop comp liancc programs under which private firms investigate their contractors to make sure that they arc obeying the law.
Needless to say, questions get raised about the effectiveness of such an approach.It gets described as "the fox guarding the chicken coop."Even when manufacturers undertake the effort seriously, there arc several problems.Workers arc afraid to reveal violations for fear the contractor will fire them.Contractors arc faced with the threat that the work will be taken away from them by the manufactur er, and while this threat may serve as an inducement for some to clean up their act, given the unchan ged economics of the situation, for many it ju st means being more careful in hiding your misdeeds.The truth is, the only real sanction the manufacturer can use against the contractor is the "death scntcncc"--to stop shipping work, which will probably drive the contractor out of business.Since neither the contractor nor the workers want that, they both "conspire" to hide illegal practices from manufactur er monitors.Moreover, manufactur ers themselves may turn a blind eye to problems among their contractors, since they do not want to disturb their product ion schedules.After all, their prices and practices created the problem in the first place.Their main motivation is to look clean so that the DOL will get off their backs.
New proposals, from the White House Apparel Industry Partnership, for example, suggest the need for independent monitoring both within the U.S. and in the global apparel industry.There is a call to have NGOs and religious groups serve a<; monitors, so that the problem<; inherent in self-monitoring arc avoided.However, given the years of experience contractors have had in hiding violations, one wonders whether independent organizations will be able to ferret out the problems.

The Heart of the Matter
At the root of the problem lies unequal power.The manufacturers and their allies have power and the workers have none.Not only do apparel manufacturers have all the usual sources of power in relation to their employees, but also in this ca<;c their relative power is exaggerated by the lack of citizenship rights of the workers.The garment industry in Los Angeles operates in many ways like the old U.S. South, or like the Aparth eid regime in South Africa.Workers have no access to state institutions that provide the usual, minimalist protections.A<; an article in the Los Angeles Times stated concerning the recent mayoral election: "LA's mayor is elected by one city to govern another.The Los Angeles that elects the mayor--and other citywide officc-holdcrs--rcmains white and largely affluent; the city the mayor governs is predominantly non-white and largely poor.".l.Q_ LA is now 43.5 percent Latino and l3.8 percent white, but Latinos make up less than 15 percent of the electorate.
Let me modify this point a little.LA garment workers do have some legal protections.They arc entitled to minimum wage and overtime, and if state agents find that they have been underpaid, they have the right to receive back wages ( even if they can rarely be collected).They also have the legal right to unionize (though being undocum ented may hinder one's right to reinstatement if one gets fired for union activity).How ever, they remain highly vulnerable to actions that dra<;tically hurt their interest<;, from th e elimination of an eight-hour a day overtime provision in state law, to the curtailing of social services for their families, to stepped up sweeps by the Immigration and Naturalization Service.In contra<;t, if they arc unhappy with certain policies, major manufacturers can call up the mayor or the governor.The mayor of Los Angel es ha<; created an apparel industry panel, known a<; the California Fa'lhion Association, to prot ect and promote the industry, on which no representative of labor sits.Th e workers arc voiceless.
Unionization is an answer to this situation.Workers need to organize and demand that their interests and needs be addressed.Unfortunately, the garment workers' union is exceedingly weak in LA, with only about 3,000 members.This ha<; not always been the ca<;c historically, but union membershi p ha<; eroded in the face of all the forces we have been describing.

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Approaches to Unionization The contracting system severely hampers union organizing efforts, a.., we have seen.If the workers in a contracting shop get organized, that factory will be boycotted by th e manufacturers and will be driven out of business.Organizing in this industry thus requires special strategics.In particular, you need to bind the manufacturer into the union contract so that he pays enough to the contractors to cover union-lev el wages and benefits.He must be made to work only or predominantly with union shops that guarantee those wages and benefits .A union contract of this sort, known a.., a Jobber's Agreement, is the only form of "joint liability" that can succeed because it is guarded by the workers themselves.ti How docs one win such an agreement?In Los Angeles, apparel industry leaders arc determined to withstand unionization at all costs .They do not want to concede an inch of their power.Thus the effort to unionize becomes a war, in which the union must hurt a company severely in order to drive it to negotiate.You practically have to drive the company out of business, and even then, some would rather die than work with a union .However, the situation is ripe with dialectical possibilities.Every strength has its weaknesses and every weakness ha.., its strengths.12 Because the contracting system is ba..,cd on loose tics between manufacturers and contractors, it is vu lnerab le to th e disruption of production flows.For example, other manufactur ers who use contractors in the same production system may agree, under pressure, to shift work away from a contractor with whom the union ha.., a labor disput e, leaving the contractor mor e vulnerable to shutting down .The target manufacturer will have difficulty findin g new contractors to work for him, especially in the middl e of a labo r disput e.In addition, truckers, who play a vital rol e in transporting goods in a dispersed production system, may support the garment workers by refusing to cross their picket line.In other word s, the contracting system ha.., its weaknesses in the face of organizing driv es.
Contractors themselves are an interesting group in terms ofunionization.On the one hand, it represents instant death for them if they arc the only tar gets and they feel compelled to fight against .On the other hand, if the union is able to win a Jobber's Agreement, then they benefit from the higher prices and improv ed stability of the relationship with the manufacturer.In the long run they have an interest in unioni zation, but in the short run , they have a deadly opposition to it.How ever, preliminary agreements can sometimes be negotiated whereby they cooperate with the union in anticipation that the entir e production system will be organized.
Apart from attempting to organize one manufacturer and its contractors a.., a single production system, other approaches arc possible.One that is less threat cning t o a manufac turer is the organiz ing of an entire secto r at one time.In LA much of the industry falls into the amorphous category of "sportswear," but a few distinctive sectors stand out, such a', denim, dresses, and swimwear.If enou gh reso urces can be mustered, an attempt could be made to organize all the manufacturers and contractors in that sector.
Apart from attempting to hurt a company by interfering in its production flows--a process that can be vital to the time-sensitive apparel industry, unions have learned that companies arc vulnerable in the non-production a<;pccts of their operations.Sometimes called corporate campaigns, the idea is to examine all the relation ships and plans of th e company for their pressure points.These include relationships with financial agents, with distributors and retailers, and with community groups and consumers.In th e ca<;c of fa'lhion, where image contributes so much to the value of the product, an attack on the image of a company can be very damaging.
One of the advantages of corporate campaigns is that they can follow a company offahorc.If an apparel manufacturer flees the accusation that they are using sweatshops in the U.S., they can equally be accused of exploiting workers in other countries.Since the clothes are still sold by U.S. retailers to U.S. consumers, those consumers can be as outraged about conditions for workers in Vietnam and Guatemala a<; they arc about conditions in Los Angeles.Indeed, some very successful campaigns have been waged against companies who exploit abroad.True, they have generally not been union organizing campaigns, but they have certainly revealed the weaknesses of firms to thi s kind of negative publicity.

Journa I of World-Systems Research
Nee dless to say, corporate strategics are all adjuncts to worker organizing.Aroused workers cannot win a campaign without having a strategy that is ba<;cd on a th orough understanding of the industry's dynamics.But on the other hand, a union cannot win such a campaign without worker support and involvement.The two must go hand in hand.
Organizing such vulnerable workers is a formidable ta<;k.Some romanticize the situation by claiming the immigrants arc on the brink of milit ancy .Certainly there have been some noteworthy immigrant worker movements in LA, such a<; the drywallcrs' strike, but the immigrant workforce can hardly be described a<; ready for a general strikc--d cva<;ta tin g though that would be to the local economy.Garment workers arc surely aware of their oppression and do sometim es engage in spontaneous protest against egregious actions on the part of their employers.But their poverty and political vulnerability make it very difficult for them to take risks.For this rca<;on, other types of organizing apart from direct union organizing in a campaign to win a contract have arisen.These include community-ba<;cd efforts that try to engage in basic worker education and service.UNITE, for example, ha<; worked w ith the idea of a Justice Center that encourages participation by garment workers no matt er what labels they arc sewing.Ethnic communities have also developed their own outreach to aid and educate workers from their particu lar communities.Much more could be done to lay the basic groundwork for more militan t struggles .Even so, being prepared to fight back is not enough .The chall enge is to learn not only how to fight, but how to w in.
The Guess Campaign UNITE is currently engaged in an effort to organize the largest LA garment manufacturer, Guess?Inc. Guess is a company that has sales of over $500 million per year.It is a highly profitable company that can certainly afford to pay its workers a living wage.The company is super anti-union and ha<; used every trick in the book to try to break the union, from firing union sympathizers, to organizing anti-union demonstrations , to litigating every point it can.If the Marcianos only spent a fraction of what they pay for their high-priced lawyers, public relations firms, and union-busting consultants on supplementing workers' wages, the workers in their contracting shops would make a living wage.Needless to say, their anti-union activism receives strong endorsement from the rest of the industry, which fears the opening of a door that would transform the power relations in the industry for them all.
So far the union campaign ha<; involved multiple tactics.Apart from organizing workers both in Gucss's inside shop, where they employ cutting and warehouse workers, and in their contracting shops, the union ha<; been able to show that violations, including illegal homework, arc rampant in Gucss's contracting network.Guess wa<; the first apparel firm to sign a self-monitoring compliance agreement with the DOL, and it is clear that they have not been able to eliminate sweatshops from their own production network.The union ha<; also put pressure on Gucss's own retail stores, consisting of boutiques in upscale malls where private property rights protect stores against social protest.And it is building a major campaign against the department stores that carry Guess clothes.
Of course, there arc those who argue that unionization will push the industry m ore quickly to move all of its production to Mexico.Guess ha<; already moved some of its production there, though its management denies that this ha<; anything to do with union organizing.No doubt some movement south would result if garment workers became organized, although it seems likely that certain sectors will remain, at lea<;t for a while.Besides, the cost pressure from organized workers may drive some manufactur ers to seek new technologies and labor systems that arc less dependent on sweated labor.These technologies and labor systems are being experimented with in the U.S. south, where a labor shortag e is driving up wages to some degree.Finally, the movement of at lca<;t parts of the industry south may compel UNITE to develop a full-fled ged cross-border organizing effort, to the benefit of workers on both sides of the border.

Conclusion
A bright spot in the current organizing efforts among immigrant workers in Los Angeles is the growing recogn ition that workers and unions cannot go it alone.They need strong community support.Community and religious groups arc playing a more active role in denouncing sweatshop practices, and demanding that manufacturers and retailers be held accountable for the conditions under which their clothes arc made.Consumers, in particular, can send a warning to the industry by refusing to buy sweatshop-made goods.Clothes that are produced in Mexico are mainly shipped back for sale in the U.S., and U.S. consumers can express their outrage at an industry that seeks out the cheape st labor in the world by being very careful about what they buy.However, rather than support a general boycott against all firms that rely on sweatshops, which would encompa..,s virtually every apparel manufacturer, consum er and community pressure is most effective when it is focused, and used in support of a workers' movement.For example, community groups can help to put pressure on Guess a.., a means of supporting the workers who toil in Guess contracting shops by not purcha..,ing Guess products, and also by joining with workers in actions and demonstrations that call for union recognition .Some believe that the LA apparel industry cannot be organized.It is too slippery a fish.The relationship of forces is so negatively skewed against the garment workers that they may a.., well give up and get by a.., best they can.I do not accept such fatalism.Garment workers are among the most oppressed and exploited people in our city.Their struggle requires the support of everyone.If they receive it, they will prevail.

Los Angeles
July 24, 1997 Endnotes l Presented at the annual conference of the American Sociological Association in Toronto, Aug 9-13, 1997.