The Evolving Arctic in the World-System
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5195/jwsr.2021.1042Keywords:
Arctic, Climate Change, Shipping, ResourcesAbstract
Global climate change’s continuing effect on the Arctic has brought about a fundamental shift in the region’s identity as it becomes an ever more active area in the world-system. Economic opportunities such as new shipping routes and a bounty of natural resources that were hitherto ice-locked are becoming accessible as the pace of climate change quickens, garnering increasing attention from actors around the world-system. This article explores the new geopolitical and economic realities of the Arctic through the lens of world-system analysis by examining the region’s budding role in the world-economy and emerging economic opportunities, its unique core-peripheral nature, and its potential to spark a regional hegemonic rivalry between NATO and a Sino-Russian partnership. This article aims introduce the evolving Arctic to world-systems studies and promote further research on the region using the theoretical framework.
References
Arctic Council. 1996. Declaration On The Establishment Of The Arctic Council. Ottawa.
Berkman, Paul Arthur, Alexander N. Vylegzhanin, and Oran R. Young. 2016. “Governing the Bering STRAIT Region: Current Status, Emerging Issues and Future Options.” Ocean Development & International Law 47(2):186–217.
Berton, Pierre. 1970. Klondike: The Last Great Gold Rush, 1896-1899. Random House of Canada.
Bislev, Ane Katrine, Ulrik Pram Gad, and Jesper Willaing Zeuthen. 2018. "China Seeking Arctic Resources - The Arctic Seeking Resources In China." Arctic Yearbook 1-4.
British Royal Navy 2020. "Royal Navy Leads Multi-National Task Group Above Arctic Circle." Royal Navy. Retrieved September 10, 2020 (https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2020/september/10/200910-royal-navy-task-group-arctic-circle).
Coates, Ken S., and Else Grete Broderstad. 2020. "Indigenous Peoples Of The Arctic: Re-Taking Control Of The Far North." Pp. 9-25 in The Palgrave Handbook of Arctic Policy and Politics, Ken S. Coates and Carin Holroyded. by Palgrave Macmillan.
Coffey, Luke, and Daniel Kochis. 2021. "Brussels NATO Summit 2018: Time To Get Serious About The Arctic." The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved September 9, 2020 (https://www.heritage.org/defense/report/brussels-nato-summit-2018-time-get-serious-about-the-arctic).
Congressional Research Service. 2021. Changes In The Arctic: Background And Issues For Congress. Washington DC: Congressional Research Service.
Deja, Cathyrine T.R. 2016. NATO's Future Role In The Arctic. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Air Command and Staff College, Air University.
DeMarban, Alex. 2020. "Trump Administration Moves To Open Millions Of Acres To Potential Mining In Western Alaska." Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved January 18, 2021 (https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/rural-alaska/2020/12/08/trump-administration-moves-to-open-millions-of-acres-to-potential-mining-in-western-alaska/).
Dutta, Ashok. 2016. "China's Sinoenergy To Invest C$500 Mil In Canada's Long Run Exploration." Spglobal.com. Retrieved April 20, 2019 (https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/natural-gas/092216-chinas-sinoenergy-to-invest-c500-mil-in-canadas-long-run-exploration).
Federal State Statistic Service. 2010. Численность Населения России, Федеральных Округов, Субъектов Российской Федерации, Городских Округов, Муниципальных Районов, Городских И Сельских Поселений. Russian Federal State Statistic Service.
Fernandez, Linda, Brooks Kaiser, Sue Moore, and Niels Vestergaard. 2016. "Introduction To Special Issue: Arctic Marine Resource Governance." Marine Policy 72:237-239.
Finnish Reindeer Herders' Association. 2021. "Economy - Reindeer Herders' Association." Reindeer Herders' Association. Retrieved December 17, 2020 (https://paliskunnat.fi/reindeer-herders-association/reindeer-info/reindeer-husbandry-economy/).
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2018. The State Of World Fisheries And Aquaculture. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Franiok, Nicole. 2020. "Russian Arctic Military Bases." American Security Project. Retrieved (https://www.americansecurityproject.org/russian-arctic-military-bases).
Forsyth, Michael J. 2018. "Why Alaska And The Arctic Are Critical To The National Security Of The United States." Military Review (January-February 2018):113-119.
Garamone, Jim. 2015. "NATO Leader Says Russia Building ‘Arc Of Steel’ In Europe." U.S. Department of Defense. (https://www.defense.gov/Explore/News/Article/Article/622080/nato-leader-says-russia-building-arc-of-steel-in-europe/.).
Garamone, Jim. 2019. "U.S., NATO Assess Lessons Of Trident Juncture Exercise." U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved August 3, 2019 (https://www.defense.gov/Explore/News/Article/Article/1734333/us-nato-assess-lessons-of-trident-juncture-exercise/).
Gosnell, Rachael. 2018. "The Future Of The Arctic Economy." The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 3, 2019 (https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/the-future-of-the-arctic-economy).
Grieger, Gisela. 2018. China's Arctic Policy: How China Aligns Rights And Interests. European Parliament, Member' Research Service.
Guo, Ling, and Steven Lloyd Wilson. 2020. "China, Russia, And Arctic Geopolitics." Thediplomat.com. (https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/china-russia-and-arctic-geopolitics/).
Hanlon, Tegan. 2021. "Biden Immediately Slams The Brakes On Oil Drilling In Arctic Refuge." Alaska Public Media. Retrieved February 8, 2021 (https://www.alaskapublic.org/2021/01/20/biden-to-immediately-slam-the-brakes-on-oil-leasing-in-arctic-refuge/).
Heleniak, Timothy. 2020. "The Future Of The Arctic Populations." Polar Geography 1-17.
Hill, Alexander. 2007. "Russian And Soviet Naval Power And The Arctic From The XVI Century To The Beginning Of The Great Patriotic War." The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 20(3):359-392.
Hong, Nong. 2018. China's Interests In The Arctic: Opportunities & Challenges, Examining The Implications Of China's Arctic Policy White Paper. Washington DC: Institute for China-America Studies.
Hopkins, Kyle. 2019. "Lawless: One In Three Alaska Villages Have No Local Police." Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved January 1, 2021 (https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/lawless/2019/05/16/lawless-one-in-three-alaska-villages-have-no-local-police/).
Hovelsrud, Grete K., Birger Poppel, Bob van Oort, and James D. Reist. 2011. "Arctic Societies, Cultures, And Peoples In A Changing Cryosphere." AMBIO 40(S1):100-110.
Humpert, Malte, and Andreas Raspotnik. 2012. "The Future Of Arctic Shipping Along The Transpolar Sea Route | The Arctic Institute." The Arctic Institute. Retrieved February 14, 2019 (https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/future-arctic-shipping-transpolar-sea-route/).
International Renewable Energy Agency. 2019. Bioenergy From Boreal Forests, Swedish Aproach To Sustainable Wood Use. Abu Dhabi.
International Union of Forest Research Organizations. 2012. Making Boreal Forests Work For People And Nature. Vienna: IUFRO’s Special Project on World Forests, Society and Environment.
James, Carolyn C., and Patrick James. 2014. "Canada, The United States And Arctic Sovereignty: Architecture Without Building?." American Review of Canadian Studies 44(2):187-204.
Jensen, Øystein. 2011. "Current Legal Developments The Barents Sea." The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 26(1):151-168.
Jiang, Yang. 2018. China In Greenland: Companies, Governments, And Hidden Intentions?. Danish Institute for International Studies.
Jozwiak, Rikard. 2018. "NATO Launches 'Biggest Military Exercise Since The End Of The Cold War'." RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved March 6, 2019 (https://www.rferl.org/a/nato-set-to-start-biggest-military-exercise-since-the-end-of-the-cold-war-/29561371.html).
Käpylä, Juha, and Harri Mikkola. 2015. On Arctic Exceptionalism: Critical Reflections In The Light Of The Arctic Sunrise Case And The Crisis In Ukraine. Finnish Institute of International Affairs.
Kauffman, Mary. 2019. "Kuskokwim Tribes Fight Donlin Mine Permits." Sitnews.us. Retrieved February 25, 2019 (http://www.sitnews.us/0219News/021019/021019_donlin_mine_permits.html).
Keil, Kathrin. 2015. "Spreading Oil, Spreading Conflict? Institutions Regulating Arctic Oil And Gas Activities." The International Spectator 50(1):85-110.
King, Hobart. 2020. "Oil And Natural Gas Resources Map Of The Arctic Ocean." Geology.com. Retrieved February 24, 2020 (https://geology.com/articles/arctic-oil-and-gas/).
Kobzeva, Mariia. 2020. "Strategic Partnership Setting For Sino-Russian Cooperation In Arctic Shipping." The Polar Journal 10(2):334-352.
Kröger, Markus. 2019. "The Global Land Rush And The Arctic." Pp. 27-43 in The GlobalArctic Handbook, Matthias Finger and Heininen Lassied. by Springer International.
Krupnick, Alan. 2011. "Drilling For Oil In The Arctic: Considering Economic And Social Costs And Benefits." Resources for the Future. Retrieved February 23, 2019 (https://www.resourcesmag.org/common-resources/drilling-for-oil-in-the-arctic-considering-economic-and-social-costs-and-benefits/).
Lackenbauer, Whitney, and Rob Huebert. 2014. "Premier Partners: Canada, The United States And Arctic Security." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 20(3):320-333.
Lajeunesse, Adam. 2018. Finding "Win-Win": China's Arctic Policy And What It Means For Canada. Canadian Global Affairs Institute.
Larsen, Joan Nymand, and Lee Huskey. 2015. "The Arctic Economy In A Global Context." The New Arctic 159-174.
Larsen, Joan Nymand, and Andrey N. Petrov. 2020. "The Economy Of The Arctic." Pp. 79-95 in The Palgrave Handbook of Arctic Policy and Politics, Ken S. Coates and Carin Holroyded. by Palgrave.
Lasserre, Frédéric. 2018. "Arctic Shipping: A Contrasted Expansion Of A Largely Destinational Market." The GlobalArctic Handbook 83-100..
Law Library of Congress. 1867. Cession Of Alaska Treaty.
Lindholt, Lars, and Solveig Glomsrød. 2018. "Phasing Out Coal And Phasing In Renewables – Good Or Bad News For Arctic Gas Producers?." Energy Economics 70:1-11.
Lukin, Artyom. 2020. "The Russia–China Entente And Its Future." International Politics 58(3):363-380.
Marcille, Kate C., Chelsea P. Mciver, Erik C. Berg, Todd A. Morgan, and Glenn A. Christesen. 2017. Alaska’S Forest Products Industry And Timber Harvest, Part 3: Sales, Employment And Contribution To The State’S Economy. Missoula: University of Montana, Bureau of Business and Economic Research.
The McDowell Group. 2019. The Economic Benefits Of Alaska's Mining Industry. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Miners Association.
McGuire, A. David et al. 2018. "Dependence Of The Evolution Of Carbon Dynamics In The Northern Permafrost Region On The Trajectory Of Climate Change." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(15):3882-3887.
Medby, Ingrid A. 2018. "Articulating State Identity: ‘Peopling’ The Arctic State." Political Geography 62:116-125.
Melia, Nathanael, Keith Haines, and Ed Hawkins. 2016. "Sea Ice Decline And 21St Century Trans-Arctic Shipping Routes." Geophysical Research Letters 43(18):9720-9728.
Messner, Steve. 2019. "Future Arctic Shipping, Black Carbon Emissions, And Climate Change." Pp. 195-208 in Maritime Transport and Regional Sustainability, Adolf K.Y. Ng, Jason Monios and Changmin Jianged. by . El Sevier.
Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation. 2020. "Permissions For Navigation In The Water Area Of The Northern Sea Route." Federal State Budgetary Institution, Northern Sea Route Administration. Retrieved December 28, 2020 (http://nsra.ru/en/rassmotrenie_zayavleniy/razresheniya.html).
Montaigne, Fen. 2016. "Tracing Alaska's Russian Heritage." Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved October 15, 2020 (https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/alaska-russian-heritage-smithsonian-journeys-travel-quarterly-180959449/).
NATO. n.d. "NATO’S Purpose." NATO. Retrieved March 6, 2020 (https://www.nato.int/cps/ua/natohq/topics_68144.htm).
Nilsen, Thomas. 2019. "Large Area With Old Taiga Forest Protected In Arkhangelsk Region." The Independent Barents Observer. Retrieved December 24, 2020 (https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/ecology/2019/10/unique-taiga-forest-protected-arkhangelsk-region).
Nilsson, Annika E. 2018. "The United States And The Making Of An Arctic Nation." Polar Record 54(2):95-107.
NOAA. 2020. "Arctic Report Card: 2020." Arctic Program. Retrieved December 18, 2020 (https://www.arctic.noaa.gov/Report-Card/Report-Card-2020).
Olesen, Mikkel Runge. 2017. Arctic Rivalries Friendly Competition Or Dangerous Conflict?. Danish Institute for International Studies.
Michiel Oosterveer, Tim, and Kue Young. 2015. "Primary Health Care Accessibility Challenges In Remote Indigenous Communities In Canada's North." International Journal of Circumpolar Health 74(1):29576.
Østhagen, Andreas. 2021. "Norway’S Arctic Policy: Still High North, Low Tension?." The Polar Journal 11(1):75-94.
Passut, Charlie. 2021. "LNG Insight - Natural Gas Intelligence." Natural Gas Intelligence. Retrieved April 20, 2019 (https://www.naturalgasintel.com/articles/115997-china-firms-alaska-reaffirm-plans-to-advance-alaska-lng-project).
Pezard, Stephanie. 2018. "The New Geopolitics Of The Arctic: Russia's And China's Evolving Role In The Region." Rand.org. (https://www.rand.org/pubs/testimonies/CT500.html).
Pistone, Kristina, Ian Eisenman, and Veerabhadran Ramanathan. 2014. "Observational Determination Of Albedo Decrease Caused By Vanishing Arctic Sea Ice." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(9):3322-3326.
Poe, Bob. 2016. "The 3-Legged Stool Is Teetering." Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved December 8, 2020 (https://www.adn.com/commentary/article/3-legged-stool-teetering/2010/01/10/#:~:text=Scott%20Goldsmith%20of%20ISER%20points,This%20economic%20stool%20is%20teetering.).
Rosen, Julia. 2017. "The World Needs Copper. Does It Need The Pebble Mine?." National Geographic. Retrieved February 25, 2019 (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/pebble-mine-alaska-copper-epa-trump-environment).
Rosen, Yereth. 2019. "Controversial Alaska Gold-Copper Mine Moves Step Closer To Approval." U.S.. Retrieved February 25, 2019 (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-alaska-mine/controversial-alaska-gold-copper-mine-moves-step-closer-to-approval-idUSKCN1QA041).
Røseth, Tom. 2014. "Russia’S China Policy In The Arctic." Strategic Analysis 38(6):841-859.
Sanders, Ruth H. 2010. German: Biography Of A Language. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sapmi, Yle. 2018. "Court Case Between Swedish Reindeer Herders And The State Of Norway: Trying The Validity Of “Lapp Codicil”." The Independent Barents Observer. Retrieved December 17, 2020 (https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2018/11/court-case-between-swedish-reindeer-herders-and-state-norway-trying-validity-lapp).
Schultz, Vincent-Gregor. 2017. Arctic Strategies Round-Up 2017. Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research. Retrieved August 11, 2021 (https://www.arctic-office.de/fileadmin/user_upload/www.arctic-office.de/PDF_uploads/Arctic_Strategies_EN_10.11.17.pdf).
Sevunts, Levon. 2018. "Binding Agreement On Arctic Fisheries Moratorium Officially Signed By EU And Nine Countries." Eye on the Arctic. Retrieved January 19, 2021 (https://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2018/10/03/fishing-fisheries-moratorium-agreement-arctic-ocean-europe-union-canada-greenland-bouffard/).
Silverstein, Ken. 2017. "Is The Arctic Ocean Awash With Economic Hope Or Ecological Risks?." Forbes. Retrieved February 23, 2019 (https://www.forbes.com/sites/kensilverstein/2017/05/01/is-the-arctic-ocean-awash-with-economic-hope-or-ecological-risks/#1db3e90478e9).
Snow, Shawn. 2018. "The Corps’ Largest Rotational Deployment To Norway Kicks Off." https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/. Retrieved October 3, 2019 (https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/your-marine-corps/2018/10/01/the-corps-largest-rotational-deployment-to-norway-kicks-off/).
Bird, Kenneth J. et al. 2008. "Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal: Estimates Of Undiscovered Oil And Gas North Of The Arctic Circle." Pubs.usgs.gov. (https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/).
Stronski, Paul, and Nicole Ng. 2018. Cooperation And Competition: Russia And China In Central Asia, The Russian Far East, And The Arctic. Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Sun, Yun. 2018. The Intricacy Of China's Arctic Policy. Stimson.
Syrotchen, Jill, and Sarah Stehn. 2020. "Assessing The Risk Of Denali's Forests To Spruce Beetle Outbreak." nps.gov. Retrieved December 18, 2020 (https://www.nps.gov/articles/assessing-the-risk-of-denali-forests-to-spruce-beetles.htm).
The State Council Information Office of the People's Republic of China. 2018. China's Arctic Policy. Beijing.
Tian, Xiaohui, Brent Sohngen, Justin Baker, Sara Ohrel, and Allen A. Fawcett. 2018. "Will U.S. Forests Continue To Be A Carbon Sink?." Land Economics 94(1):97-113.
Torp, Eivind. 2013. "The Legal Basis Of Sami Reindeer Herding Rights In Sweden." Arctic Review on Law and Politics 4(1):43-61.
United Nations UNCLOS. 1982. United Nations Convention On The Law Of The Sea. New York: United Nations.
US Department of Defense. 2016. Report To Congress On Strategy To Protect United States National Security Interests In The Arctic Region. Washington DC: US Department of Defense.
United States Department of the Navy. 2014. The United States Navy Arctic Roadmap For 2014 To 2030. Washington DC: Chief of Naval Operations.
US Energy Information Administration. 2012. "Arctic Oil And Natural Gas Resources." Eia.gov. Retrieved February 24, 2021 (https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=4650).
Wang, Muyin, and James E. Overland. 2012. "A Sea Ice Free Summer Arctic Within 30 Years: An Update From CMIP5 Models." Geophysical Research Letters 39(18).
Watts, Jonathan. 2019. "Military Buildup In Arctic As Melting Ice Reopens Northern Borders." the Guardian. Retrieved October 3, 2019 (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/24/military-buildup-in-arctic-as-melting-ice-reopens-northern-borders).
Wegge, Njord. 2015. "The Emerging Politics Of The Arctic Ocean. Future Management Of The Living Marine Resources." Marine Policy 51:331-338.
Weidacher Hsiung, Christopher. 2016. "China And Arctic Energy: Drivers And Limitations." The Polar Journal 6(2):243-258.
Wei-Haas, Maya. 2020. "Colossal Crater Found In Siberia. What Made It?." National Geographic. Retrieved January 1, 2021 (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/09/colossal-crater-found-Siberia-what-made-it/).
Welch, Craig. 2019. "Arctic Permafrost Is Thawing Fast. That Affects Us All.." National Geographic. Retrieved January 1, 2021 (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/arctic-permafrost-is-thawing-it-could-speed-up-climate-change-feature/).
Yukon Bureau of Statistics. 2020. Population Report First Quarter, 2020. Whitehorse: Government of Yukon.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- The Author retains copyright in the Work, where the term “Work” shall include all digital objects that may result in subsequent electronic publication or distribution.
- Upon acceptance of the Work, the author shall grant to the Publisher the right of first publication of the Work.
- The Author shall grant to the Publisher and its agents the nonexclusive perpetual right and license to publish, archive, and make accessible the Work in whole or in part in all forms of media now or hereafter known under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License or its equivalent, which, for the avoidance of doubt, allows others to copy, distribute, and transmit the Work under the following conditions:
- Attribution—other users must attribute the Work in the manner specified by the author as indicated on the journal Web site;
- The Author is able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the nonexclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the Work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), as long as there is provided in the document an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post online a prepublication manuscript (but not the Publisher’s final formatted PDF version of the Work) in institutional repositories or on their Websites prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work. Any such posting made before acceptance and publication of the Work shall be updated upon publication to include a reference to the Publisher-assigned DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and a link to the online abstract for the final published Work in the Journal.
- Upon Publisher’s request, the Author agrees to furnish promptly to Publisher, at the Author’s own expense, written evidence of the permissions, licenses, and consents for use of third-party material included within the Work, except as determined by Publisher to be covered by the principles of Fair Use.
- The Author represents and warrants that:
- the Work is the Author’s original work;
- the Author has not transferred, and will not transfer, exclusive rights in the Work to any third party;
- the Work is not pending review or under consideration by another publisher;
- the Work has not previously been published;
- the Work contains no misrepresentation or infringement of the Work or property of other authors or third parties; and
- the Work contains no libel, invasion of privacy, or other unlawful matter.
- The Author agrees to indemnify and hold Publisher harmless from Author’s breach of the representations and warranties contained in Paragraph 6 above, as well as any claim or proceeding relating to Publisher’s use and publication of any content contained in the Work, including third-party content.
Revised 7/16/2018. Revision Description: Removed outdated link.
