A Nez Perce/DuBoisian Theory of Whiteness and the Global Color-Line
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5195/jwsr.2025.1228Keywords:
Whiteness, Racism, Crisis, Global Social Change, Social Movements, Core-Periphery Relationships, Indigenous Peoples/Native Americans/American Indians, Archive, Long Twentieth Century, ImperialismAbstract
Using a researcher-collected archive of publications by the Nimiipuu/Nez Perce, this paper argues that Nimiipuu/Nez Perce observations of white people extend W. E. B. Du Bois’s world-systems analysis. The Nimiipuu/Nez Perce and Du Bois explicate a cannibalistic cycle of whiteness that emerged from competition among various imperial groups claiming whiteness for geopolitical advantage. This cycle helps explain the U.S. ascension from periphery to core in the capitalist world-system; its competition is epitomized by any rush (for gold, souls, land, etc.) that induces a state of anomie (by violence, isolation, boom/bust, etc.) and devolves into crises of social and ecological relationships (built on reciprocity, trust, symbiosis, etc.). This process creates a positive feedback loop whereby whiteness must be recalibrated as a legitimate source of advantage in the capitalist world-system, setting off new rushes to solve the problems created or compounded by whiteness. Likewise, crises sometimes present opportunities for Indigenous groups to reassert their political, economic, and cultural influence (e.g., environmental restoration)—exemplified by the 1979–1981 Nez Perce “fish-in” at Rapid River, Idaho—which simultaneously undermine white claims to superiority and progress and help people imagine and build worlds beyond the new world-order of capitalism and nation-states.
References
Ackerman, Lillian. 1971. “Marital Instability and Juvenile Delinquency Among the Nez Perces.” American Anthropologist 73(3): 595–603.
Ambrose, Stephen. 1996. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.
Altheide, David. 1987. “Reflections: Ethnographic Content Analysis.” Qualitative Sociology 10(1): 65–77.
Arrighi, Giovanni. 2010. The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origins of Our Times. New York: Verso.
Boatcă, Manuela. 2017. “The Centrality of Race to Inequality across the World-System.” Journal of World-Systems Research 23(2): 465–73.
Böröcz, József. 2021. “‘Eurowhite’ Conceit, ‘Dirty White’ Resentment: ‘Race’ in Europe.” Sociological Forum 36(4): 1116–34.
Boyd, Robert and Cecilia Gregory. 2007. “Disease and Demography in the Plateau.” Journal of Northwest Anthropology 41(1): 37–70.
Brown, David L. and Louis E. Swanson, eds. 2003. Challenges for Rural America in the Twenty-First Century. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Brown, Mark. 1966. “Yellowstone Tourists and the Nez Perce.” Montana 16(3): 30–43.
Bush, Roderick. 2009. The Sociology of the Color Line: W.E.B. Du Bois and the End of White World Supremacy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Cannell, Lin. 2010. The Intermediary: William Craig among the Nez Perces. Carlton: Ridenbaugh Press.
Carlson, Laurie Winn. 1998. On Sidesaddles to Heaven: The Women of the Rocky Mountain Mission. Caldwell: Caxton Press.
Charmaz, Kathy. 2004. “Grounded Theory.” Pp. 496–521 in Approaches to Qualitative Research, edited by S. Hesse-Biber and P. Leavy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Chase-Dunn, Chris and Bruce Lerro. 2014. Social Change: Globalization from the Stone Age to the Present. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers.
Chase-Dunn, Chris and Kelly Mann. 1998. The Wintu and Their Neighbors: A Very Small World-System in Northern California. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Coleman, Michael. 1987. “The Responses of American Indian Children to Presbyterian Schooling in the Nineteenth Century: An Analysis through Missionary Sources.” History of Education Quarterly 27(4): 473–97.
Comaroff, John and Jean Comaroff. 1992. Ethnography and the Historical Imagination. Boulder: Westview Press.
Colombi, Benedict. 2005. “Dammed in Region Six: The Nez Perce Tribe, Agricultural Development, and the Inequality of Scale.” American Indian Quarterly 29(3&4):560–89.
_____. 2012a. “Salmon and the Adaptive Capacity of Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) Culture to Cope with Change.” American Indian Quarterly 36(1): 75–97.
_____. 2012b. “The Economics of Dam Building: Nez Perce Tribe and Global-Scale Development.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36(1): 123–49.
Du Bois, W. E. B. 1904. The Souls of Black Folk. Cambridge: Andover-Harvard Theological Library. (https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk/JPv4-U5q5BEC?hl=en&gbpv=0).
_____. 1915. “The African Roots of War.” The Atlantic Monthly 115(May): 707–714.
_____. 1920. Darkwater: Voices from within the Veil. New York: AMS Press. (https://www.google.com/books/edition/Darkwater/FYpAwPv895kC?hl=en&gbpv=0).
_____. 1992 [1935]. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880. New York: The Free Press.
_____. 2007 [1947]. The World and Africa, &, Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace, edited by H. L. Gates, Jr. New York: Oxford University Press.
Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. 2014. An Indigenous People’s History of the United States. Boston: Beacon Press.
Drury, Clifford. 1958. The Diaries and Letters of Henry H. Spalding and Asa Bowen Smith Relating to the Nez Perce Mission, 1838–1842. Glendale: The Arthur H. Clark Company.
Estes, Nick. 2019. Our History is the Future: Standing Rock Versus the Dakota Access Pipeline, and the Long Tradition of Indigenous Resistance. London: Verso.
Fenelon, James V. 2016. “Critique of Glenn on Settler Colonialism and Bonilla-Silva on Critical Race Analysis from Indigenous Perspectives.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 2(2): 237–242.
_____. 2023. Indian, Black and Irish: Indigenous Nations, African Peoples, European Invasions, 1492–1790. New York: Routledge.
Flanagan, John. 2000. “The Invalidity of the Nez Perce Treaty of 1863 and the Taking of the Wallowa Valley.” American Indian Law Review 24(1): 75–98.
Force, Jo Ellen, Garry E. Machlis, and Lianjun Zhang. 2000. “The Engines of Change in Resource-Dependent Communities.” Forest Science 46(3): 410–22.
Fuentes, Marisa. 2016. Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Fynn-Paul, Jeffrey. 2009. “Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era.” Past & Present 205(1): 3–40.
Garth, Thomas. 1964. “Early Nineteenth Century Tribal Relations in the Columbia Plateau.” Southwest Journal of Anthropology 20(1): 43–57.
Gass, Patrick. 1997. The Journals of Patrick Gass: Member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, edited by C. L. MacGregor. Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Company.
Gay, E. Jane. 1981. With the Nez Perces: Alice Fletcher in the Field, 1889–92. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Greene, Jerome. 2000. Nez Perce Summer, 1877: The U.S. Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press.
Grell-Brisk, Marilyn. 2022. “Critical World-Systems Analysis: Thoughts on Organizing against Antiblackness across Global-Local Boundaries.” Journal of World-Systems Research 28(2): 243–66.
Haines, Francis. 1955. The Nez Percés: Tribesmen of the Columbia Plateau. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Hall, Thomas and James Fenelon. 2009. Indigenous Peoples and Globalization: Resistance and Revitalization. New York: Routledge.
Harper, Barbara and Deward Walker, Jr. 2015. “Comparison of Contemporary and Heritage Fish Consumption Rates in the Columbia River Basin.” Human Ecology 43(2): 225–36.
Horne, Gerald. 2015. Confronting Black Jacobins: The U.S., the Haitian Revolution, and the Origins of the Dominican Republic. New York: Monthly Review Press.
_____. 2020. The Dawning of the Apocalypse: The Roots of Slavery, White Supremacy, Settler Colonialism, and Capitalism in the Long Sixteenth Century. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Howard, Oliver Otis, Gen. 1881. Nez Perce Joseph: An Account of His Ancestors, His Lands, His Confederates, His Enemies, His Murders, His War, His Pursuit & Capture. Boston: Lee & Shepard Publishers. (https://www.google.com/books/edition/Nez_Perce_Joseph/Ky3-06qjgtYC?hl=en&gbpv=0).
Hunter, Marcus. 2013. Black Citymakers: How the “Philadelphia Negro” Changed Urban America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Idaho Department of Labor. 2020. “Census provides snapshots of Idaho’s reservation populations.” Idaho At Work. Retrieved January 15, 2023. (https://idahoatwork.com/2020/04/20/census-provides-snapshots-of-idahos-reservation-populations/).
Itzigsohn, José and Karida L. Brown. 2020. The Sociology of W. E. B. Du Bois: Racialized Modernity and the Global Color Line. New York: New York University Press.
Josephy, Alvin. 1955. “The Naming of the Nez Perces.” Montana 5(4):1–18.
_____. 1997. The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Josephy, Alvin. 2007. Nez Perce Country. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Lewiston Morning Tribune. 1979. “Negotiations to avert fishing clash intensify.” Lewiston Morning Tribune, June 6, 1979. Microfilm.
_____. 1980a. “Nez Perce fishermen name chapter officers.” Lewiston Morning Tribune. May 24. Microfilm.
_____. 1980b. “Rapid River: Peace reigns, but arrests continue.” Lewiston Morning Tribune, June 23, 1980. Microfilm.
_____. 1980c. “Letter to the Editor: The Indian fishing.” Lewiston Morning Tribune, June 13, 1980. Microfilm.
Miller, Christopher. 1985. Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Monteiro, Anthony. 2007. “Race and Empire: W.E.B. Du Bois and the US State.” The Black Scholar 37(2): 35–52.
The New York Times. 1877. “A Lesson from the Nez Perces.” The New York Times. October 15, 4. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://www.nytimes.com/1877/10/15/archives/a-lesson-from-the-nez-perces.html).
_____. 1979. “Idaho Indians Agree to Salmon Fishing Ban.” The New York Times, June 9, A8. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://www.nytimes.com/1979/06/09/archives/idaho-indians-agree-to-salmon-fishing-ban-results-of-severe-drought.html).
_____. 1996. “Tribe is Now Wanted as a Resource.” The New York Times, July 22, A1. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/22/us/tribe-is-now-wanted-as-a-resource.html).
Norgaard, Kari. 2019. Salmon & Acorns Feed Our People: Colonialism, Nature & Social Action. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Oliphant, J. Orin. 1950. “Encroachments of Cattlemen on Indian Reservations in the Pacific Northwest, 1870–1890.” Agricultural History 24(1): 42–58.
Oyogoa, Francisca. 2016. “Cruise Ships: Continuity and Change in the World System.” Journal of World-Systems Research 22(1): 31–7.
Partoll, Albert. 1951. “Angus McDonald, Frontier Fur Trader.” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 42(2): 138–46.
Pearsall, Marion. 1949. “Contributions of Early Explorers and Traders to the Ethnography of the Northwest.” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 40(4): 316–26.
Pearson, J. Diane. 2008. The Nez Perces in the Indian Territory: Nimiipuu Survival. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Pfau, Scott E. 2006. “The Nez Perce Flight to Canada: An Analysis of the Nez Perce–U.S. Calvary Conflicts: Applying Historical Lessons Learned to Modern Counterinsurgency and Global War on Terrorism Operations.” Master’s Thesis, Military Art and Science, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA463806).
Reyes, Lawney L. 2016. The Last Fish War: Survival on the Rivers. Seattle: Chin Music Press.
Richards, Kent. 2016. Isaac I. Stevens: Young Man in a Hurry. Pullman: Washington State University Press.
Rodríguez, Abelardo. 2011. “Indian Tribes in Idaho: Opportunities and Challenges in the Times of Self-Determination.” University of Idaho Extension, Bulletin 873.
Ruby, Robert and John Brown. 1989. Dreamer-Prophets of the Columbia Plateau: Smohalla and Skolaskin. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Sharfstein, Daniel. 2017. Thunder in the Mountains: Chief Joseph, Oliver Otis Howard, and the Nez Perce War. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Stern, Theodore. 1998. “Columbia River Trade Network.” Pp. 641–52 in Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 12, edited by D. E. Walker, Jr. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Timmermans, Stefan and Iddo Tavory. 2012. “Theory Construction in Qualitative Research: From Grounded Theory to Abductive Analysis.” Sociological Theory 30(3): 167–86.
Tonkovich, Nicole. 2012. The Allotment Plot: Alice C. Fletcher, E. Jane Gay, and Nez Perce Survivance. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Walker, Deward, Jr. 1969. “New Light on the Prophet Dance Controversy.” Ethnohistory 16(3):245–55.
_____. 1998. “Nez Perce.” Pp. 420–38 in Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 12, edited by D. E. Walker, Jr. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Walker, Deward, Jr., and Daniel Matthews. 1998. Nez Perce Coyote Tales: The Myth Cycle. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1991. “The Construction of Peoplehood: Racism, Nationalism, Ethnicity.” Pp. 71–85 in Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities, edited by E. Balibar and I. Wallerstein. New York: Verso.
_____. 2004. World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction. Durham: Duke University Press.
West, Elliot. 2011. The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wilmer, Franke. 1993. The Indigenous Voice in World Politics: Since Time Immemorial. London: SAGE.
Wyeth, Nathaniel. 1899. The Correspondence and Journals of Captain Nathaniel J. Wyeth, 1831–6: A Record of Two Expeditions for the Occupation of the Oregon Country, with Maps, Introduction & Index. Eugene: University Press. (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdsBAAAAMAAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false).
Alcorn, Rowena L. and Gordon D Alcorn. 1963. “Old Nez Perce Recalls Tragic Retreat of 1877.” Montana 13(1):66–74. **
Aoki, Haruo. 1994. Nez Perce Dictionary. Berkeley: University of California Press. **
Aoki, Haruo and Deward Walker, Jr. 1989. Nez Perce Oral Narratives. Berkeley: University of California Press. **
Axtell, Horace and Margo Aragon. 1997. A Little Bit of Wisdom: Conversations with a Nez Perce Elder. Lewiston: Confluence Press.
Baird, Dennis, Diane Mallickan, and W. R. Swagerty, eds. 2002. The Nez Perce Nation Divided: Firsthand Accounts of Events Leading to the 1863 Treaty. Pullman: Washington State University Press.
_____. 2015. Encounters with the People: Written and Oral Accounts of Nez Perce Life to 1858. Pullman: Washington State University Press.
Bohnee, Gabriel, Paul Matthews, Josiah Pinkham, Anthony Smith, and John Stanfill. 2011. “Nez Perce Involvement with Solving Environmental Problems: History, Perspectives, Treaty Rights, and Obligations.” Pp. 149–84 in Stakeholders and Scientists: Achieving Implementable Solutions to Energy and Environmental Issues, edited by J. Burder. New York: Springer.
Bull, Carol. 1987. “Our People in the Indian Territory.” Pp. 40–51 in The Northwest Tribes in Exile: Modoc, Nez Perce, and Palouse Removal to the Indian Territory, edited by C. Trafzer. Sacramento: Sierra Oaks Publishing Co.
Carter, Caleb. 2017a. “Christmas Among the Nez Percés.” Pp. 101–104 in Recovering Native American Writings in the Boarding School Press, edited by J. Emery. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
_____. 2017b. “How the Nez Percés Trained for Long Distance Running.” Pp. 104–106 in Recovering Native American Writings in the Boarding School Press, edited by J. Emery. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
_____. 2017c. “Coyote and the Wind.” P. 151 in Recovering Native American Writings in the Boarding School Press, edited by J. Emery. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
_____. 2017d. “The Feast of the Animals.” Pp. 151–53 in Recovering Native American Writings in the Boarding School Press, edited by J. Emery. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Cash Cash, Phillip. 2005. “Nez Perce (Nimíipuu) Religious Traditions.” Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved December 02, 2020 (https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nez-perce-niimiipuu-religious-traditions).
_____. 2006. “Oral Traditions of the Natítaytma.” Pp. 5–19 in Wiyáx̣ayxx̣t / As Days Go By / Wiyáakaaʔawn: Our History, Our Land, and Our People: The Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by J. Karson. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
_____. 2010a. “Núunim Titwatítinʔ Wéetes ‘Our Storied Earth.’” Pp. 21–6 in Čáw Pawá Láakni: They Are Not Forgotten: Sahaptian Place Names Atlas of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by E. S. Hunn, E. T. Morning Owl, P. E. Cash Cash, and J. K. Engum. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
_____. 2010b. “Wéeteskinʔix Cúukwe ‘Knowledge from the Earth.’” Pp. 31–4 in Čáw Pawá Láakni: They Are Not Forgotten: Sahaptian Place Names Atlas of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by E. S. Hunn, E. T. Morning Owl, P. E. Cash Cash, and J. K. Engum. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
_____. 2018. “Language Use in the Indigenous Southern Plateau.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.
Chief Joseph. 1995. That All People May Be One People, Send Rain to Wash the Face of the Earth. Kooskia: Mountain Meadow Press.
Clark, Ella, ed. 1952. “Some Nez Perce Traditions Told by Chief Armstrong.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 53(3):181–191. **
_____. 1953a. Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest. Berkeley: University of California Press. **
_____. 1953b. “Indian Story Telling of Old in the Pacific Northwest.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 54(2):91–101. **
_____. 1953c. “The Mythology of the Indians in the Pacific Northwest.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 54(3):163–89. **
_____. 1953d. “Watkuese and Lewis and Clark.” Western Folklore 12(3):175–178. **
Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission. 2012. “Snake River Fall Chinook Recovery: A Tribal Success Story.” CRITFC News. (https://critfc.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/success-stories-full-set-.pdf).
Conner, Roberta. 2006. “Our People Have Always Been Here.” Pp. 85–119 in Lewis and Clark through Indian Eyes: Nine Indian Writers on the Legacy of the Expedition, edited by A. M. Josephy, Jr. New York: Vintage Books.
Conner, Roberta, Elizabeth Woody, Les Minthorn, Fred Hill, Sr., Sharon Hoptowit John, and Armand Minthorn. 2003. “Honoring Homeland Heritage.” History News 58(1):10–3.
Conner, Roberta and William Lang. 2006. “Early Contact and Incursion, 1700–1850.” Pp. 23–60 in Wiyáx̣ayxx̣t / As Days Go By / Wiyáakaaʔawn: Our History, Our Land, and Our People: The Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by J. Karson. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
Crook, Harold and Michaael Wasson. 2013. Hey’úuxchacwal Kaa Palxc: Ten Nez Perce Stories from Archie & Mary Phinney. Lewiston: Lewis-Clark State College Press.
Emerson, Elaine and Ann McCormack. 1996. “Interview with Elaine Emerson (Colville), Basketweaver Interviewed by Ann McCormack (Nez Perce).” Frontiers 17(1):82–6.
Feathers, Joseph. 1970. These Are the Nez Perce Nation. Lewiston: Lewis-Clark Normal Press.
Fermore, Craig, Robin Richards, and Kim Stafford. 2002. “Picking up the Drum: An Oral History from the Columbia Plateau.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 103(3):338–61.
FiveCrows, Jeremy. 2007. “Introduction: I Am of This Land.” Pp. ix–xvii in Nez Perce Country, edited by A. M. Josephy, Jr. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
_____. 2013. “Protecting Fisheries by Protecting the Ecosystem.” CRITFC News: The Dipnetter, September 16. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://critfc.org/2013/09/16/protecting-fisheries-by-protecting-the-ecosystem).
_____. 2015a. “Changing Ecosystem: Reservoir Sedimentation.” CRITFC News: The Dipnetter, October 05. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://critfc.org/2015/10/05/changing-ecosystem-reservoir-sedimentation/).
_____. 2015b. “Risks of Columbia Gorge Fossil Fuel Transport.” CRITFC News: The Dipnetter, November 04. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://critfc.org/2015/11/04/risks-of-columbia-gorge-fossil-fuel-transport/).
_____. 2017. “Oxbow Conservation Area Tailings Restoration Project.” CRITFC News: The Dipnetter, January 12. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://critfc.org/2017/01/12/oxbow-conservation-area-tailings-restoration-project/).
_____. 2019. “Honoring Oceans on World Oceans Day.” CRITFC News: The Dipnetter, June 8. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://critfc.org/2019/06/08/honoring-oceans-on-world-oceans-day/).
Frank, Rose and Ann McCormack. 1996. “Rose Frank (Nez Perce), Cornhusk Weaver Interviewed by Ann McCormack (Nez Perce) in 1991.” Frontiers 17(1):87–9.
Gudgell, Heidi, Steven Moore, and Geoffrey Whiting. 2006. “The Nez Perce Tribe’s Perspective on the Settlement of its Water Right Claims in the Snake River Basin Adjudication.” Idaho Law Review 42(3):563–94. **
Halfmoon, Otis. 1996. “Joseph (Heinmot Tooyalakekt) (1841–1904): Nez Perce Leader.” Pp. 309–11 in Encyclopedia of North American Indians, edited by F. E. Hoxie. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Hart, Lily. 2018. “Voices of the River: The Confluence Story Gathering Interview Collection.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 119(4):508–27. **
Hernández-Ávila, Inés. 1996. “Meditations of the Spirit: Native American Religious Traditions and the Ethics of Representation. American Indian Quarterly 20(3/4):329–52.
_____. 1999. “Holding the Mirror: A Message from Coyote’s Daughter.” Western American Literature 34(2):195–202.
_____. 2006. “In each trace of footstep: the constant song of spiritmemory (for my mom, Janice Hernández).” Pp. 249–63 in Eating Fire, Tasting Blood: Breaking the Great Silence of the American Indian Holocaust, edited by F. Apffel-Marglin and S. Varese. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press.
_____. 2020. “Spirit crossings: Indigenous Cultural Perspective on Mortality, Death, and Dying.” Pp. 87–112 in Contemporary Voices from Anima Mundi: A Reappraisal, edited by F. Apffel-Marglin and S. Varese. New York: Peter Lang.
Holt, Renée. 2012a. “Decolonizing Indigenous Communities.” Unsettling America, April 18. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://unsettlingamerica.wordpress.com/2012/04/18/decolonizing-indigenous-communities/).
_____. 2012b. “Exercise Your Right to Represent Your Tribal Nation.” Indianz.com, October 12. August 31, 2023. (https://www.indianz.com/News/2012/10/12/renee-holt-exercise-your-right.asp).
_____. 2013a. “PKOLS and the indigenous nationhood movement.” Last Real Indians, May 20. August 31, 2023. (https://lastrealindians.com/news/2013/5/20/may-20-2013-pkols-and-the-indigenous-nationhood-movement-by-renee-holt).
_____. 2013b. “Keystone XL is a Global Climate Issue.” Last Real Indians, August 20. August 31, 2023. (https://lastrealindians.com/news/2013/8/20/aug-20-2013-keystone-xl-is-a-global-climate-issue-by-renee-holt).
_____. 2014. “Reclaiming Ancestral Ways in the Spirit of Crazy Horse.” Last Real Indians, January 17. August 31, 2023. (https://lastrealindians.com/news/2014/1/17/jan-17-2014-reclaiming-ancestral-ways-in-the-spirit-of-crazy-horse-by-renee-holt).
_____. 2016. “An Indigenous Inquiry on Culturally Responsive Curriculum.” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Teaching and Learning, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.
Hunn, Eugene S., E. Morning Owl, Modesta Minthorn, and Jeniffer K. Engum. 2010. “Naamí Tiičaamí Tɨmná ‘The Heart of Our Country.’” Pp. 11–16 in Čáw Pawá Láakni: They Are Not Forgotten: Sahaptian Place Names Atlas of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by E. S. Hunn, E. T. Morning Owl, P. E. Cash Cash, and J. K. Engum. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
James, Caroline. 1996. Nez Perce Women in Transition, 1877–1990. Moscow: University of Idaho Press. **
Jones, R. n.d. Am I Radical, or Rational? A Beginning to Decolonizing Our Communities. Lapwai: R. Jones.
Kauffman, Hattie. 1986. “Hattie Kauffman Remarks: Before the National Indian Education Association: Spokane, Washington, October 23, 1985.” Wicazo Sa Review 2(1):37–8.
_____. 1997. Sacred Journey of the Nez Perce. Presented by Montana PBS. February 10. Video, 56:58. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://www.pbs.org/video/montanapbs-presents-sacred-journey-of-the-nez-perce/).
_____. 2013. Falling into Place: A Memoir of Overcoming. Grand Rapids: Baker Books.
Kawamura, Hiroaki. 2004. “Symbolic and Political Ecology among Contemporary Nez Perce Indians in Idaho, USA: Functions and Meanings of Hunting, Fishing, and Gathering Practices.” Agriculture and Human Values 21(2/3):157–69. **
Keyser, James and Phillip Cash Cash. 2002. “A Cave Quirt Handle from the Warm Springs Reservation: Northern Plains Biographic Art in the Columbia Plateau.” Plains Anthropologist 47(180):51–9.
Landeen, Dan and Allen Pinkham. 1999. Salmon and His People: Fish and Fishing in Nez Perce Culture. Lewiston: Confluence Press.
Lee, Debbie. 2010. “Listening to the Land: The Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness as Oral History.” The Oral History Review 37(2):235–48. **
Mallickan, Diane. 2015. “Foreword.” Pp. ix–xiv in Encounters with the People: Written and Oral Accounts of Nez Perce Life to 1858. Edited by Baird, Dennis, Diane Mallickan, and W. R. Swagerty. Pullman: Washington State University Press.
McCormack, Ann and Nettie Jackson. 1996. “Nettie Jackson (Klikitat), Basketweaver Interviewed by Ann McCormack (Nez Perce) in 1991.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 17(1):81.
McDonald, Duncan. 2016. The Nez Perces: The History of Their Troubles and the Campaign of 1877. Pablo: Salish Kootenai College Press.
McWhorter, Lucullus V. 1940. Yellow Wolf: His Own Story. Caldwell: Caxton Press.
_____. 1952. Hear Me, My Chiefs! Nez Perce Legend & History. Caldwell: Caxton Press.
Morning Owl, E. and Roberta Conner. 2010. “Pašúwaša Tímanina Tiičámana ‘They Are Cutting up the Marked Land.’” Pp. 49–54 in Čáw Pawá Láakni: They Are Not Forgotten: Sahaptian Place Names Atlas of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by E. S. Hunn, E. T. Morning Owl, P. E. Cash Cash, and J. K. Engum. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
Morning Owl, E., Jeniffer Engum, Eugene Hunn, and Roberta Conner. 2010. “Anakú Waníčtna Papáyšinxa ‘When They Bring out a Name.’” Pp. 61–6 in Čáw Pawá Láakni: They Are Not Forgotten: Sahaptian Place Names Atlas of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by E. S. Hunn, E. T. Morning Owl, P. E. Cash Cash, and J. K. Engum. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
Morning Owl, E., Roberta Conner, Modesta Minthorn, and Jeniffer Engum. 2010. “Wiyáʔuyt Wapáxwini ‘We Are Beginning Our Testimony.’” Pp. 7–9 in Čáw Pawá Láakni: They Are Not Forgotten: Sahaptian Place Names Atlas of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla, edited by E. S. Hunn, E. T. Morning Owl, P. E. Cash Cash, and J. K. Engum. Pendleton: Tamástslikt Cultural Institute.
Nez Perce Tribe. 2003. Treaties: Nez Percé Perspectives. Lewiston: Confluence Press.
_____. 2020. Nez Perce Tribe. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://www.nezperce.org/).
_____. 2019–2020. Nimiipuu Tribal Tribune, Vols. 1 & 2. Retrieved August 31, 2023. (https://nezperce.org/nimiipuu-tribal-tribune-archive/).
Penney-Pinkham, D’Lisa. 2013. “Niimíipuu Culturally Responsive Framed Pedagogies: A Study Guided by Indigenous Research Theories: Kíiye Pecepelíhniku’ Wapáyat’as Mamáy’asna Hipewc’éeyu’ Cúukwenin’ (We Will All Work to Help the Children Become Knowledgeable).” Ed.D. dissertation, College of Education, University of Idaho.
Phinney, Archie. 1935. “Racial Minorities in the Soviet Union.” Pacific Affairs 8(3):321–7.
_____. 1969. Nez Percé Texts. New York: AMS Press.
_____. 2002. “Numipu among the White Settlers.” Wicazo Sa Review 17(2):21–42.
_____. 2003. “Problem of the ‘White Indians’ of the United States.” Wicazo Sa Review 18(2):37–40.
Piatote, Beth. 1998. “A Circle of Words: Two Families Honor a Gesture to Chief Joseph.” Native Americans XV:40.
_____. 2010. “Our (Someone Else’s) Father.” The Kenyon Review 32(1):199–217.
_____. 2020. The Beadworkers: Stories. Berkeley: Counterpoint Press.
Pinkham, Allen and Steven Evans. 2013. Lewis and Clark Among the Nez Perce: Strangers in the Land of the Nimiipuu. Washburn: The Dakota Institute Press.
Pinkham, Allen. 2006. “We Ya Oo et Soyapo.” Pp. 137–161 in Lewis and Clark through Indian Eyes: Nine Indian Writers on the Legacy of the Expedition, edited by A. M. Josephy, Jr. New York: Vintage Books.
_____. 2007. “Childhood Memories of Fishing at Celilo Falls.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 108(4):586–95.
Pinkham, Jamie. 2019. “Land, Public Trust, and Governance: A Nez Perce Account.” Pp. 296–305 in Reclaiming Indigenous Governance: Reflections and Insights from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States, edited by W. Nikolakis, S. Cornell, and H. Nelson. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Reubens, James. 1934. “The Nez Perces Indians.” Pp. 359–63 in Chronicles of Oklahoma, edited by the Oklahoma Historical Society, 12(3). Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical Society.
Rudzitis, Gundars, Nicolas Barbier, and Diane Mallickan. 2013. “Aging on Indian Reservations: The Ugly, the Bad, and the Good.” Pp. 161–175 in Rural Aging in 21st Century America. Edited by Glasgow, N., Berry, E. Dordrecht: Springer. 10.1007/978-94-007-5567-3_9
Sadongei, Alyce and Phillip Cash Cash. 2007. “Indigenous Value Orientations in the Care of Human Remains.” Pp. 97–102 in Human Remains: Guide for Museums and Academic Institutions, edited by V. Cassman, N. Odegaard, and J. Powell. Lanham: AltaMira Press.
Sapatq́ayn. 1991. Sapatq́ayn: Twentieth Century Nez Perce artists. Lewiston: Confluence Press.
Sappington, Robert and Caroline Carley. 1995. “Alice Cunningham Fletcher’s ‘Ethnologic Gleanings Among the Nez Perces.’” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 29(1):1–50. **
Sappington, Robert, Caroline Carley, Kenneth Reid, and James Gallison. 1995. “Alice Cunningham Fletcher’s ‘The Nez Perce Country.’” Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 29(2):177–220. **
Scheuerman, Richard, Kristine Gritter, Carrie Schuster, and Gordon Fisher. 2010. “Sharing the Fire: Place-Based Learning with Columbia Plateau Legends.” The English Journal 99(5):47–54.
Scheuerman, Richard and Clifford Trafzer, eds. 2015. River Song: Naxiyamtáma (Snake-River Palouse) Oral Traditions from Mary Jim, Andrew George, Gordon Fisher, and Emily Peone. Pullman: Washington State University Press.
Schwartz, Tracy. 2012. “When a Haama Loves an ‘Aayat: Courtship and Marriage among the Modern Day Niimiipuu as a Form of Indigenous Resistance.” Journal of Northwest Anthropology 46(2):177–88. **
Slickpoo, Allen, Sr. 1972. Nu Mee Poom Tit Wah Tit (Nez Perce Legends). Lapwai: Nez Perce Tribe.
_____. 1973. Noon Nee-Me-Poo (We, the Nez Perces): Culture and History of the Nez Perces. Lapwai: Nez Perce Tribe.
_____. 1987. “The Nez Perce Attitude toward the Missionary Experience.” Idaho Yesterdays 31(1–2):35–7.
_____. 1996. “Nez Perce.” Pp. 431–3 in Encyclopedia of North American Indians, edited by F. E. Hoxie. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Space, Ralph. 1970. The Lolo Trail: A History of Events Connected with the Lolo Trail Since Lewis and Clark. Lewiston: Printcraft Printing Inc. **
Stern, Theodore, Martin Schmitt, and Alphonse Halfmoon. 1980. “A Cayuse-Nez Percé Sketchbook.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 81(4):340–76.
Swayne, Zoa. 2003. Do Them No Harm! Lewis & Clark Among the Nez Perce. Caldwell: Caxton Press. **
Taylor, Arthur. 2013. “`Iceyeeye Comes to School: Niimiipuu Cultural Competence and Use of Traditional Niimiipuu `Iceyeeye Stories to Construct Indigenous Knowledge with Classroom Teachers for our Children.” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Education, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID.
Thomas, Anthony. 1970. The Life History of a Nez Perce Indian, edited by W. Goodenough. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association. **
Thompson, Scott. 2000. I Will Tell of My War Story: A Pictorial Account of the Nez Perce War. Seattle: University of Washington Press. **
Tribal Hemp & Cannabis Magazine. 2020. Tribal Hemp & Cannabis Magazine, Vol. 1. Kamiah: The Indigenous CANNabis Coalition.
Walker, Deward, Jr. 1966. “A Nez Perce Ethnographic Observation of Archaeological Significance.” American Antiquity 31(3):436–7. **
_____. 1967. “Nez Perce Sorcery.” Ethnology 6(1):66–96. **
_____. 1985. Conflict & Schism in Nez Perce Acculturation: A Study of Religion and Politics. Moscow: University of Idaho Press. **
Walla Walla Treaty Council of 1855. 2014. The official proceedings of the Council in Walla Walla Valley of 1855, United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, & Indian Council in the Valley of the Walla Walla, the 1855 Journal of Lawrence Kip. Peoria: The Cosmoline Press.
Wasson, Michael. 2015. “A Boy & His Mother Play Dead at Dawn.” Prairie Schooner 89(4):156–7.
_____. 2017. This American Ghost: Poems. Portland: YesYes Books.
_____. 2018a. “A Poem for the Háawtnin’ & Héwlekipx [the Holy Ghost of You, the Space & Thin Air].” Poetry 212(3):214–6.
_____. 2018b. “Portrait with Smeared Centuries.” Poetry 212(3):212–3.
_____. 2019a. “To Memorize the Continuous Lines of Your Bones [an American Lullaby].” Poetry 215(3):267–8.
_____. 2019b. “What Follows Is a Reconstruction Based on the Best Available Evidence.” Poetry 215(3):269–72.
_____. 2019c. “Your Shadow Invents You Every Time Light Fails to Pass through You.” Poetry 215(3):265–6.
_____. 2020. “I Am Another of Yourself.” The Massachusetts Review 61(4):693–694.
Weaskus, Jeanette. 2007. “A Ghost Dance for Words.” Pp. 129–34 in Sovereign Bones: New Native American Writing, Vol. II, edited by E. Gansworth. New York: Nation Books.
_____. 2009. “The Spirits of the ‘80s.” Pp. 247–54 in Borne on Air: Essays by Idaho Writers, edited by M. C. Blew and P. Druker. Spokane: Eastern Washington University Press.
_____. 2011. “Earthly Rhetorics of Nez Perce Peoples Past, Present, and Future.” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of English, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.
_____. 2014. “The Stone Flute.” Yellow Medicine Review 2014:85–9.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Levin Welch
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- The Author retains copyright in the Work, where the term “Work” shall include all digital objects that may result in subsequent electronic publication or distribution.
- Upon acceptance of the Work, the author shall grant to the Publisher the right of first publication of the Work.
- The Author shall grant to the Publisher and its agents the nonexclusive perpetual right and license to publish, archive, and make accessible the Work in whole or in part in all forms of media now or hereafter known under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License or its equivalent, which, for the avoidance of doubt, allows others to copy, distribute, and transmit the Work under the following conditions:
- Attribution—other users must attribute the Work in the manner specified by the author as indicated on the journal Web site;
- The Author is able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the nonexclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the Work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), as long as there is provided in the document an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post online a prepublication manuscript (but not the Publisher’s final formatted PDF version of the Work) in institutional repositories or on their Websites prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work. Any such posting made before acceptance and publication of the Work shall be updated upon publication to include a reference to the Publisher-assigned DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and a link to the online abstract for the final published Work in the Journal.
- Upon Publisher’s request, the Author agrees to furnish promptly to Publisher, at the Author’s own expense, written evidence of the permissions, licenses, and consents for use of third-party material included within the Work, except as determined by Publisher to be covered by the principles of Fair Use.
- The Author represents and warrants that:
- the Work is the Author’s original work;
- the Author has not transferred, and will not transfer, exclusive rights in the Work to any third party;
- the Work is not pending review or under consideration by another publisher;
- the Work has not previously been published;
- the Work contains no misrepresentation or infringement of the Work or property of other authors or third parties; and
- the Work contains no libel, invasion of privacy, or other unlawful matter.
- The Author agrees to indemnify and hold Publisher harmless from Author’s breach of the representations and warranties contained in Paragraph 6 above, as well as any claim or proceeding relating to Publisher’s use and publication of any content contained in the Work, including third-party content.
Revised 7/16/2018. Revision Description: Removed outdated link.
